Native American Culture Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Native American Culture - Term Paper Example Native Americans wanted to control the environment and the human being or the supernatural beings that surrounded or threatened them. Particular articles were solely for religious uses, and some were for secular needs alone. Decorations did not always provide clues as to their uses; most of the religious articles were completely devoid of ornamentation. A few people used plain-ware bowls for food preparation, while others used polychrome bowls for the same purposes, yet under a different set of circumstances they could fulfill a religious function (Kuiper 176). The specific aim of the Indian artist was not just to set down realistic account but to form the semi-magical designs so universal in the art of non-Western cultures. Carvings paintings, effigies, or realistic portraits were not merely pictures of people or objects; they embodied the essence of that particular subjects as well. Native Americans often attached names to designs for convenience of people as it helped to avoid con fusion. Although the dissimilarities between the artistic languages of different times were immense, there were also similarities, for the borrowing of art forms from distant and occasionally foreign peoples was a common practice (Kuiper 181). Despite the similarities between the art of forms of different cultural groups and various cultural groups and dissimilar times, one cannot talk of Indian art as though it were on its own a concept. Just as there were numerous hundred native languages, dialects, and speech forms, so were there an equal number of tribal styles, motifs, and design forms. Aesthetics, or perceptions of beauty are among the most difficult concepts to identity in any Native American musical culture. Native Americans tended to evaluate performances according to the feelings of connectedness they generate rather than according to specifically musical qualities. Some communities judged the victory of a performance by how many people

Cultures in the World Essay Example for Free

Cultures in the World Essay To define culture is not easy because culture means different things to different people. Hence there many definitions of culture as there are many different cultures in the World. Anthropologists define culture as social behaviour of human beings. To others dance, music, theatre, artifacts and fashion constitute culture. On the other hand, fashion is a style characteristic of the social elite and is mainly associated with social class and is highly dynamic. Hence fashion should be in current mode for instance a garment. Fashion, style, vogue or even mode are used interchangeably to refer to a preferred type of dress, behaviour, adornment or a way of life at a given time span. In broadest terms fashion usually refers to conventions which are generally accepted by a society or by any culture or even a subculture. Style like mode often stresses the adherence to standards and elegance and should be socially accepted. For instance miniskirts were the mode in the late sixties. Vogue is applied to style or fashion that prevails widely but often suggests enthusiastic but short lived acceptance (The American heritage 2003). Wilson, further states that fashion is always in a continual change and sets the terms for all sartorial behaviour (Wilson 2003). The importance of fashion can never be overemphasized in the current world since fashion now is always around us from media to our daily lives in clothing and even automobile sector. Let it be clearly noted that fashion is for aesthetic as well as societal class, elegance and modesty. In the current years fashion has become a major factor affecting the psychosocial wellbeing of major cultures and subcultures in the world. This influences the life of people both in style and preferences and their economical sphere. The growth of fashion is linked with the development of cities and urban centres in the 14th century and the growing sophistication of the courts. But it is only in 15th and 16th centuries when people developed the culture of fashion and class such that they felt shameful to wear outdated clothes (Wilson 2003). The entrance of fashion led to increased spending on clothes and a clear cut class differences. The rise of bourgeoisie became so much crucial in the development of fashion and style. The poorest class received the cheapest clothing with the people in the highest level in class ladder wearing the most expensive clothes. With the rise of Industrial revolution came capitalism hence new markets for clothes in fashion and fashion became more and more important with the circulation of images in mass communication. GENDER AND FASHION In the current contemporary world, fashion has become the order of the day. Media houses and world class beauty and model centres have been developed all over the world especially in Europe and U. S. A. However, unlike the past where fashion was associated with female, this industry welcomes both genders nowadays. But because of the past skewed interest of ladies in the industry they are still the major players. Nevertheless, almost every one in the current society setting especially in urban areas appreciates fashion and style and is a product of the same in one way or another. People are more conscious when it comes to fashion and no one is willing to be left behind in the outdated world hence consumption of these fashion products has tremendously risen. ‘Dress is a practical negotiation between the fashion system, the social conditions of everyday life such as class and gender as well as rules or norm governing particular social situations. The outcome of this complex interaction cannot be known in advance precisely because the habitus will improvise and adapt to these conditions’. Thus dress is a personal attempt to orientate ourselves to particular circumstances and thus recognise the structural influences of the social world and the individual on the other (Entwistle 2000) FASHION AND MODERNITY Fashion has kept pace with modern life. It has followed every step the global world is making and is by itself part and parcel of the globalised world. From North to South, West to East fashion is seen to influence the global ways of life. However, this is bringing about similarity and extinction of cultures since fashion and culture are linked and the change of one leads to change of the other. Since fashion is dynamic it follows that the fashion of yester years is different from the fashion of today hence today’s fashion is new and can be termed as modern. Modern fashion has greatly been affected by the present technological advancement and the entrance of new marketing approach. For example, the use of internet has revolutionized this industry. It is not a wonder therefore what is considered modern in London today is even being used the following day in Washington. This has promoted customized fashion products to promote what many fashion stars look for in fashion; uniqueness and class. Fashion and style industry has in the recent decades been well established with increased sales as many people go for class and fashion. Also, the quality of the products has greatly developed thus fashion has become our way of life. FASHION, SUBCULTURAL YOUTH STYLES It is important to distinguish between the concept of youth culture and youth subcultures. In general terms youth culture is more homogenous, doing similar things and being treated in the same way playing down aspects of differentiation. This idea was much popular with U. S sociologists in early 1960s. In modern youth culture emphasis is more on subcultures. Unlike the 20th c where fashion was highly linked with class, in 21st c the line of demarcation has narrowed and the mode of classification is not only on class lines but across a wide plane of social and cultural identities. Hence the youth even in ghettos are coming up with their modes of fashion. The issue of subcultures within the large framework of culture in a society is a major phenomenon. Hence these subcultures act as the seed bed for fashion that is embraced by the larger society. The link between class and identity is far less apparent in the 20th c, in particular since high fashion is democratised and not longer the prerogative of a small elite. In contemporary culture distinction does not run along class lines alone but across a wide plane of social identities. Thus, rather than being only imposed from the top, fashion is also ‘bubbling up’ from the street and youth cultures (Entwistle 2000). The use of style brings across clear identity within the youth and serves to sometimes oppose dominant values within the society. Youth tend to solve their problems of culture and fashion in their own unique understandable way hence they act against the main stream fashions of the old. However their fashions and style are dominantly affected by the media and celebrities entertainment industry. Fashion trends brought forward by top musicians come fast and go quickly. These fashions and styles linked with subcultures are known to be diverse as the youth are dynamic. Therefore the rate of change of any fashion within a subculture is higher than in the dominant cultures. The youth also customise fashions by either adding or removing some parts from the original fashion to create a different identity. And for sure youth have revolutionised the world of fashion and culture, in the contemporary world. Therefore fashion is regarded as a mode of identity by the youth and serves as the avenue through which the youth express themselves. EFFECTS OF FASHION ON CONSUMERISM The cycle of fashion in the modern times has been found to influence the level of consumerism in the current world. Fashion is fueled by change and conversion. Designers always persuade their customers that their new fashions are everything they need. In the next season the same designers convince their customers to bade farewell to outdated designs and instead embrace the new trends in their latest collections. Western societys culture of mass consumerism has widely been influenced by the fashion cycle. Sociologist Stella C. (1993) likens fashion cycle with the rolling waves of the sea. As one fashion gains popularity and is outdated another style is gaining momentum and this change our modern culture. Today’s fashion is not only placed on the contest of youth, sexuality and historicism, but also previous culture movements and shows fashion reflects its surrounding, its subjects but ultimately itself. FASHION AND CLASS Fashion is known to influence lifestyle and how people relate within the society. However this relationship is both on the individual and societal levels. Fashion is a product of class division since many people want to be seen in a unique way within any given society and societies also show their class differences using fashion hence affecting the culture of present societies. CONCLUSION It is true that fashion and culture are highly interlinked. A culture that appreciates fashion is a culture that is dynamic and ready to follow where its fashion leads it to. Modern culture is hinged on the fashion of each passing day and unlike the past psychosocial behaviour is influenced by fashion on a larger scale. Youth subcultures promote their own form of fashion which may be interlinked with fashions within the larger sphere of culture. These fashions serve to show their rebellious identity. The cycle of fashion has seen unnecessary changes of fashion due to designers who look forward to make profits and are out to change fashions as quickly as practicably possible. Hence the world is supposed to be aware of these uncalled changes in fashions. Unethical issues are also related to fashion and culture. Therefore, some people see it like their religious and spiritual beliefs are affected by fashion. However on a global perspective fashion has promoted the entrance of more products in the world market leading to increased competitiveness. Modern global culture is a mirror of fashion and design. REFERENCES Bruzzi Stella, and Patricia Gibson, 2000, Fashion Cultures: Theories, Explorations, and Analysis. London; New York: Routledge. Craik, Jennifer, 1993, The Face of Fashion: Cultural Studies in Fashion. London; New York: Routledge. Entwistle, J. 2000, The Fashioned Body: Fashion, Dress and Modern Social Theory. Cambridge: Polity Press. Malossi, G. 2000, Material Man: Masculinity, Sexuality, Style. New York: H. N. Abrams. The American Heritage, 2003, Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition by Houghton Mifflin Company. U. S. A.

Looking At Laboratory Information Systems Information Technology Essay

Looking At Laboratory Information Systems Information Technology Essay INTRODUCTION Healthcare is always a top priority within any collection of individuals, whether it is the workforce, schools, churches, communities, states, countries etc. This is because mortality rates are directly affected by the level of healthcare available, and effective productivity is dependent on good health and high mortality rates. Developed nations tend to invest large sums of money into healthcare, in order to prevent most ailments before they become epidemics, however, due to lack of emphasis on the importance of healthcare, African nations suffer from low mortality rates caused by lack of proper laboratory procedures and equipment, to test and accurately diagnose problems ahead of time. Even though we are now in a highly advanced technological era, Nigerian hospitals still conduct tests, data collection, and calculations manually, leaving a huge opening for errors which could lead to wrong diagnosis and in turn, wrong treatment. As we humans become ever increasingly dependent on computer technology in our daily lives, it then would be appropriate to utilize technological solutions to problems conventional methods prove inefficient at. These problems can be solved with the use of a properly configured software system to manage all administrative tasks in the laboratories. The most effective use of technology to solve to these issues would be carried out using open source software popularly known as a Laboratory Information System (L.I.M.S). The model of this work seeks to provide an application which will enable vital functionalities such as proper documentation and storage of patient information, patient specimen/sample tracking, and most important, patient test results. In the light of the above, the proposed system applies the web application development approach in its information architecture and processing, however this system will run on a local machine as opposed to running on a remote server over the internet. Consequently at completion of this work, the end product should be a Laboratory information management system which handles activities in the lab from the entry of a patient to the laboratory to the generating of a test result or Laboratory report. BACKGROUND OF STUDY The study for the development of the laboratory information management system uses a medical laboratory facility: Bakor Medical laboratory as its case study. Investigations indicate that the following steps or procedures are undertaken in the process of getting tested in the medical laboratory. On entry into the laboratory a document known as the Patient Investigation form. This form holds information such as the Patients name, age sex, on filling this form the patient is then billed. The patient Investigation form is then transferred to a second laboratory attendant who then uses the information retrieved from the aforementioned form to fill the laboratory request book. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM In recent times, due to increase in population, there is constant pressure on providers of various services to provide innovative methods of dispensing a sizable amount of services to great amount of people in the shortest possible time. Consequently, organizations are constantly resorting to technological solutions to meet up with the ever increasing demand for quality and speedy service delivery and with virtually everything in our day to day lives being technologically driven, should there not be a scenario where paper documentation is completely annihilated from medical laboratories?, where a system is adopted in which patient records and data are properly stored such as to enable features such as patient/visitor history tracker, where a returning patients history can aid the laboratory in deducing what type of test a visitor would request for, statistical reports generation where useful statistical information is inferred based on test results e.g whether or not there is an incr ease or decrease of new HIV infections, should there not be a software/application where other stakeholders in the health-care delivery processes such as doctors and pharmacists have access to laboratory generated information to aid in their health-care administration?, should the retrieval of patient test records be slow and cumbersome?, why must results be entered directly on the result document, therefore a backup copy is unavailable. Questions such as these will serve as a guide to the development of a robust system than manages various tasks in the medical laboratory. 1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS Based on the statement of the problems above the research question for this study are: How will the development of a laboratory information management System greatly increase the laboratorys efficiency? OBJECTIVE OF STUDY To design a robust Laboratory information System that will efficiently aid in the running of the laboratory facility To hold and provide timely information about each visitor to the laboratory To reduce the need to hire staff through the proper application of technological solutions therefore cutting cost. With a proper functioning and comprehensively designed application, Laboratory tasks such the following can be achieved: SAMPLES MANAGEMENT A LIMS can automate the management of samples. An organization can configure its analytical parameters and calculations into the LIMS before implementing the software in the laboratory. After sample registration, the system can print barcodes which it can scan at the end of the analysis when loading results into the LIMS. The system can check the completed results, automatically validating those which comply with specifications; and reporting (but not validating) out-of-specification results. A LIMS may release or retain lots and batches, according to a laboratorys specifications and calculations. Once results come available for the labs clients or owners, they can extract them in  PDF, XML  or spreadsheet files from the LIMS interface. (Note that moving insufficient data to a spreadsheet may lose the traceability of changes). LABORATORY USERS One may configure a LIMS for use by an unlimited  number of users. Each user owns an interface, protected by security mechanisms such as a login and a password. Users may have customized interfaces. A laboratory manager might have full access to all of a LIMS functions, whereas technicians might have access only to functionality needed for their individual work-tasks. ADMINISTRATIVE TASKS AUTOMATION As of 2009  LIMS implementations can manage laboratory sampling, consumables sampling schedule and financial (invoices). SCOPE OF STUDY Bakor Medical centre has various departments and sections based on the issue at hand to be dealt with; however this study focuses mainly on the lab processes, including data collection and management. This study takes the patient from the moment of entry into the medical centre, filling forms, up till the moment the test is taken, from that point onwards the study will focus on the methods used by the laboratory attendant to collect and store data, through recording of findings and submission of results This study will also concentrate on data backup and retrieval methods and will highlight potential errors and problems that could be encountered if the entire process was carried out manually instead of using a well configured computer application. SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY The Computer based Laboratory information management System is quite desirable as it will benefit the laboratory in the area of repetitive task automation. It will serve as an assistant to the medical laboratory scientist. It will also benefit patients as they will be able to retrieve record from previous visits to the laboratory. LIMITATIONS OF STUDY The limitations of this study include: Inability to obtain actual test result document, as this goes against medical ethics for a third party to view Laboratory specimen or test results. Unavailability of qualified laboratory scientist at the study locations to properly explain terms and laboratory procedures. LITERATURE REVIEW From tasting urine to microscopy to molecular testing, the sophistication of diagnostic techniques has come a long way and continues to develop at breakneck speed. The history of the laboratory is the story of medicines evolution from empirical to experimental techniques and proves that the clinical lab is the true source of medical authority. Three distinct periods in the history of medicine are associated with three different places and therefore different methods of determining diagnosis: From the middle ages to the 18th century, bedside medicine was prevalent; then between 1794 and 1848 came hospital medicine; and from that time forward, laboratory medicine has served as medicines lodestar. The laboratorys contribution to modern medicine has only recently been recognized by historians as something more than the addition of another resource to medical science and is now being appreciated as the seat of medicine, where clinicians account for what they observe in their patients. The first medical diagnoses made by humans were based on what ancient physicians could observe with their eyes and ears, which sometimes also included the examination of human specimens. The ancient Greeks attributed all disease to disorders of bodily fluids called humors, and during the late medieval period, doctors routinely performed uroscopy. Later, the microscope revealed not only the cellular structure of human tissue, but also the organisms that cause disease. More sophisticated diagnostic tools and techniques such as the thermometer for measuring temperature and the stethoscope for measuring heart rate were not in widespread use until the end of the 19th century. The clinical laboratory would not become a standard fixture of medicine until the beginning of the 20th century. Ancient diagnostic methods In ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, the earliest physicians made diagnoses and recommended treatments based primarily on observation of clinical symptoms. Palpation and auscultation were also used. Physicians were able to describe dysfunctions of the digestive tract, heart and circulation, the liver and spleen, and menstrual disturbances; unfortunately, this empiric medicine was reserved for royalty and the wealthy. Other less-than-scientific methods of diagnosis used in treating the middle and lower classes included divination through ritual sacrifice to predict the outcome of illness. Usually a sheep would be killed before the statue of a god. Its liver was examined for malformations or peculiarities; the shape of the lobes and the orientation of the common duct were then used to predict the fate of the patient. Ancient physicians also began the practice of examining patient specimens. The oldest known test on body fluids was done on urine in ancient times (before 400 BC). Urine was poured on the ground and observed to see whether it attracted insects. If it did, patients were diagnosed with boils. The ancient Greeks also saw the value in examining body fluids to predict disease. At around 300 BC, Hippocrates promoted the use of the mind and senses as diagnostic tools, a principle that played a large part in his reputation as the Father of Medicine. The central Hippocratic doctrine of humoral pathology attributed all disease to disorders of fluids of the body. To obtain a clear picture of disease, Hippocrates advocated a diagnostic protocol that included tasting the patients urine, listening to the lungs, and observing skin color and other outward appearances. Beyond that, the physician was to understand the patient as an individual. Hippocrates related the appearance of bubbles on the surface of urine specimens to kidney disease and chronic illness. He also related certain urine sediments and blood and pus in urine to disease. The first description of hematuria or the presence of blood in urine, by Rufus of Ephesus surfaced at around AD 50 and was attributed to the failure of kidneys to function properly in filtering the blood. Later (c. AD 180), Galen (AD 131-201), who is recognized as the founder of experimental physiology, created a system of pathology that combined Hippocrates humoral theories with the Pythagorean theory, which held that the four elements (earth, air, fire, and water), corresponded to various combinations of the physiologic qualifies of dry, cold, hot, and moist. These combinations of physiologic characteristics corresponded roughly to the four humors of the human body: hot moist = blood; hot dry = yellow bile; cold moist = phlegm; and cold dry = black bile. Galen was known for explaining everything in light of his theory and for having an explanation for everything. He also described diabetes as diarrhea of urine and noted the normal relationship between fluid intake and urine volume. His unwavering belief in his own infallibility appealed to complacency and reverence for authority. That dogmatism essentially brought innovation and discovery in European medicine to a standstill for nea rly 14 centuries. Anything relating to anatomy, physiology, and disease was simply referred back to Galen as the final authority from whom there could be no appeal. Middle Ages In medieval Europe, early Christians believed that disease was either punishment for sin or the result of witchcraft or possession. Diagnosis was superfluous. The basic therapy was prayer, penitence, and invocation of saints. Lay medicine based diagnosis on symptoms, examination, pulse, palpitation, percussion, and inspection of excreta and sometimes semen. Diagnosis by water casting (uroscopy) was practiced, and the urine flask became the emblem of medieval medicine. By AD 900, Isaac Judaeus, a Jewish physician and philosopher, had devised guidelines for the use of urine as a diagnostic aid; and under the Jerusalem Code of 1090, failure to examine the urine exposed a physician to public beatings. Patients carried their urine to physicians in decorative flasks cradled in wicker baskets, and because urine could be shipped, diagnosis at long distance was common. The first book detailing the color, density, quality, and sediment found in urine was written around this time, as well. By a round AD 1300, uroscopy became so widespread that it was at the point of near universality in European medicine. Consequently, the clinical laboratory became a standard fixture of medicine at the beginning of the 20th century; it is now an integral part of the health-care delivery process and is seen as the basis for medical diagnosis. In recent times a medical laboratory scientist (MLS), formerly known as a medical technologist (MT) or clinical laboratory scientist (CLS), functions as a medical detective, performing laboratory tests that provide physicians with information that assists them in preventing, diagnosing and treating diseases and maintaining patient wellness.   The medical laboratory scientist performs a wide variety of laboratory tests, ranging from simple dipstick urine tests to complex DNA tests that help physicians assess risk of diseases. Using test results, physicians can uncover diabetes, cancer, heart attacks, infections and many other diseases.   Medical laboratory scientists interact with physicians, nurses, pharmacists, and other members of the healthcare team to provide timely, accurate information so the patient can receive the correct medical treatment.   Medical laboratory scientists use sophisticated biomedical instruments and technology, microscopes, complex electronic equipment, computers, and methods requiring manual dexterity to perform tests on blood, body fluids, and tissue specimens. Clinical laboratory testing sections include clinical chemistry, hematology, Immunohematology (Blood Bank), immunology, microbiology and molecular diagnostics. EFFECTS OF MEDICAL LABORATORIES Medical Laboratories have played a pivotal role over the years. As stated above, in ancient times, physicians relied on various inaccurate means of disease diagnosis such as urine tasting, listening to the lungs etc. However with the advent and subsequent evolution of modern medical laboratory facilities, plus the discovery of the cellular nature of human tissue and the invention of the microscope, medical diagnosis made a tremendous leap from a 50-50 accuracy ratio to an 80% accuracy rating for laboratory based medical diagnosis. Therefore the use of medical laboratories has greatly increased the accuracy of diagnosis; hence the physician can administer the proper kind of treatment. The use of laboratories has also led to various discoveries, such as new strands of Viruses, bacteria, parasites and fungi. It also acts as a monitor for new strands of drug resistant bacteria. CHALLENGES FACED BY MEDICAL LABORATORIES The main challenges and bottle-necks encountered by medical laboratories over the years include. Inability to preserve patient samples or specimens such as blood, sputum, stool, over a long period of time for reference purposes hence making patient to specimen matching and tracking, Efficient information sharing and retrieval between the laboratory scientist and those administering treatment has been a problem. MEDICAL LABORATORIES: IMPROVEMENTS AND THE FUTURE For the efficient functioning of the diagnosis system, health-care delivery, scientific research into bacteriology and disease causing organisms, technology should be applied to automate administrative tasks, such as the visitor registration and result documentation. By making judicious use of computer software to automate and manage tasks in the laboratory there will be a dramatic increase in its efficiency. Consequently this will greatly reduce the need to recruit and pay personnel to carry out administrative duties therefore such resources can be channeled towards more important needs of the laboratory. TECHNOLOGY PLATFORM/PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE TO BE USED IN STUDY The technologies to be used in the development of this Laboratory Information Management system is an open source programming language known as PHP, together with a MYSQL driven database, a solid browser based application will be developed. PHP: PHP also known as Hypertext Pre-processor, it belongs to a class of languages known as middleware (Needham, 2006). These languages work closely with the web server to interpret the request made from the web, processes these request, interact with other programs on the server to fulfill the request and then indicates to the web server exactly what to serve to the clients browser. It is the leading web programming language for design of web applications. It possesses a language similar to C, Java or Pearl. Its uses include: retrieving user input and saving it in a database, retrieving information from a database and general data manipulation processes. THE CLIENT: Simply refers to end users of an application that connect to a remote server to carry out computational processes THE SERVER: An application known as a web server listens for requests a client makes, responds to those requests and serves out the appropriate response (Greenspan, 2002) MYSQL: Refers to an open source relational database management system with a set of programs that access and manipulate these records. (Descartes, 2003). It is a  relational database management system (RDBMS)  that runs as a server providing multi-user access to a number of databases. APACHE WEB SERVER: Apache is a web server notable for playing an important role in the initial growth of the world-wide web. It is responsible for accepting Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) request from web client (web browsers) and serving the HTTP responses along with optional data content which usually are HTML pages. These platforms are used in this research work because: There are open source meaning there are free to use and develop with without having to purchase licenses or fulfill any legal obligation to the owners of the technology. It is easy to deploy on a local machine Its hardware requirements are minimal therefore making its installation and usage less cumbersome. Developer tools and support services for the platform/technology are readily available at absolutely no cost. DATA COLLECTED FOR LABORATORY TEST Lab Investigation Form: This form is used for general patient registration and data collection. Data collected on this form include Patient Name Patient age Hospital Number Specimen Blood Specimen Sputum Stool Urea Various Swap Investigation Record Clinic Details Name of Doctor Lab Request Book: Used to record Patients data for that day. Name Lab Investigation Done Amount Time in Data Collected for lab tests Lab result book (Used for recording patients results) Patients Name Date of birth Gender Test Results Date Hospital registration Number Extra Comments SUMMARY The use of technological solutions greatly reduces costs, increase profits, save human effort and provide better services to customers/clients The use of an LIS (Laboratory information System) in the running of a medical laboratory facility greatly improves the documentation process; makes patients records retrieval a lot easier and faster, records are not lost and are kept safe via regular backup of the available data. With the use of a Laboratory information system, various kinds of data deductions, surveys and reports can be easily generated for statistical purposes such as the average percentage of persons with a certain kind of disease, Genotype or blood type etc. CONCLUSION A properly developed Medical Laboratory information system will greatly increase productivity, increase the quality of services delivered by the facility and greatly reduce the amount of man hours put into the delivering the laboratory services

Rosa Parks :: essays research papers

Racism and prejudice have been dominant issues in the United States for many years. Being such a major issue is society, racism is also a major theme in one of the best pieces of American Literature, To Kill A Mockingbird. People, particularly African Americans, have been denied basic human rights such as getting a fair trial, eating in a certain restaurant, or sitting in certain seats of public buses. However, in 1955 a woman named Rosa Parks took a stand, or more correctly took a seat, on a public bus in Montgomery, Alabama. She refused to give her seat to a white man and was arrested for not doing so. The reasons and consequences and the significance of her stand are comparable in many ways to Atticus Finch's stand in To Kill A Mockingbird. Rosa Parks worked for the equality of all people. She was elected secretary of the Montgomery branch of the National Advancement of Colored People, unsuccessfully attempted to vote many times to prove her point of discrimination, and had numero us encounters with bus drivers who discriminated against blacks. She was weary of the discrimination she faced due to the Jim Crow laws, which were laws were intended to prohibit "black[Americans] from mixing with white [Americans]" ("Jim Crow Laws"1). Also, due to the Jim Crow laws, blacks were required to give their seats to white passengers if there were no more empty seats. This is exactly what happened on December 1, 1955. On her way home from work, Rosa Parks refused to give her seat to a white man and was shortly arrested (National Women's Hall of Fame1). Even though she knew what the consequences were for refusing to leave her seat, she decided to take a stand against a wrong that was the norm in society. She knew that she would be arrested, yet she decided that she would try to make a change. Although her arrest would seem like she lost her battle, what followed would be her victory. Rosa Parks's stand was so significant that she is called the mother of the civil rights movement (National Women's Hall of Fame1). Her arrest served as a catalyst for a massive boycott for public busses. Led by Martin Luther King, for 381 days, African Americans carpooled, walked, or found other ways of transportation. Despite the harassment everyone involved in the movement faced, the boycott continued and was extremely successful.

In the 15th Century the idea of schooling began Essay

It is used during the process of ‘streaming’ within school subjects. For example pupils who the teacher feels is good or poor at a certain subject, will be taught in a high or low ability group, this has criticisms at it encourages pupils to think of themselves as having fixed educational ability. A pupil can also be given a label from their behaviour, such as ‘trouble maker’ or ‘thick’, either at home or school. This can damage a child’s self esteem or make them rebel, which leads to them believing the label they have been given, this is called the ‘Self-fulfilling prophecy. For what ever reason they were given the label, they find it hard to be looked at without the label, so end up behaving in a way that fits to their given label. Working class not only have had inequalities in the past but also still do today. Although there are more opportunities in the education system, home life also plays large impact on how well a child does achidemically at school. Douglas (1964) conducted a study on middle and working class children through primary and secondary school. He found that children of a similar measured ability at age 7 varied a great deal in their educational achievement by the time they were 11. He claimed that the greatest influence on attainment was parental attitudes in the working class. He measured this by the number of times these parents visited the school, family size, early child-rearing practises, health and the quality of the child’s school. Working class children are more likely to have a part time job whilst at school and likely to leave education at 16. The Plowden Report (1967) noticed in working class households there was an absence of books, educational toys, lack of finance, lack of motivation, no parent support of due to own experiences or as a need to work long hours. This has been described as Material and Cultural deprivation. Jackson and Marsden (1962) published a study, ‘Education and the working class’. It showed that working class children tend to be slower in learning how to read and write, they start school at a disadvantage and this normal continues throughout. Marxists would say that this is because there are less opportunities for some classes and that the education system just helps to reproduce the existing class structure, e. g. , the ruling class (upper and middle class) and the workers (the working class), thus conflict and inequalities will continue. Success at school depends heavily on language, for reading, writing, speaking and understanding. Bernstein argues that ‘there is a relationship between language use and social class, and that the language used by the middle class is a better instrument for success at school than the language used by the working class’, (Browne 2005). In his view there are two different language codes: Â  The restricted code- This language is used by both classes, but is more characteristic of the working-class people. It is used everyday amongst friends and family, which is informal and simple (such as slang). Bernstein argues that lower-class-working people are mainly limited to this form of language use. Â  The elaborated code- This is mainly used by the middle-class, and is spoken in a formal context, with explanation if required. It has a much wider vocabulary than the restricted code, and is the language that would be found in textbooks, essays and examinations. Bernstein has argued that as the language used in schools by teachers and in textbooks is the elaborated code, working class children are disadvantaged. They may find it hard to understand the elaborate language used in school, therefore their work will suffer. Unlike middle class children who are used to the language so will find the work easier. Differences have been found amongst the achievements of people from different ethnic backgrounds, possible reasons for this could be the differences in their cultural backgrounds, language barriers and understanding or suffering from racism. If English were not the first language for someone this would give him or her a large disadvantage in the understanding of the language, which would affect their work in most areas. Suffering from racism in or out of school would cause the pupil upset, which could affect their schoolwork. Many Pakistani, Bangladeshi and African Caribbean children have large families and are working class, so are likely so have deprived social conditions. These groups mentioned appear to have a below average reading ability and tend to get fewer and poorer GCSE results than white or Indian pupils. It can be seen on the below table they are the overall lowest achieving ethnic groups. Students that achieved 5 or more GCSE grades A*-C (%) Race Group 1989 1998 2002 Indian N/a 54 60 White 30 47 52 Bangladeshi N/a 33 41 Pakistani N/a 29 40 Black 18 29 36. (Department for Education and skills, 2004: in Livesley et al, 2005) From the data above it is clear that black children are the lowest achievers. In the past racist remarks have been made claiming that problem was they had lower levels of inherited intelligence. Which is untrue, in 1985 the Swann Report found that ‘there was no significant difference between the IQs of black and white children’, (Thompson et al, 1982). Black boys are often given labels such as ‘unruly’ and ‘difficult to control’, due to how the teacher has interpreted them by their dress, manner or speech, and find them challenging. They are more often to be given detention than other pupils, and often feel unfairly treated, then respond in accordance with their label, self-fulfilling prophecy. Although they do not achieve well at school, the number of black women staying in education past the age of 16 is increasing, which may be influenced by the many future career opportunities available today. Kamala Nehaul (Parenting, Schooling and Caribbean Heritage Pupils’ 1999) has noted how black parents ‘valued education for the enhanced life chances it offered’. She also mentioned the encouragement and commitment from parents, talking about the school day and providing provisions needed for their child to study. Indian children do well within the education system, there is a strong emphasis on self-improvement through education within this culture. Many of these children have professional backgrounds, so have good role models and supportive parents and they also have material advantages. Differences in the achievement between gender, race and class will continue to be compared, though surely the person should be treated as an individual. Post-modern thinkers such as Elkind (1998), suggest ‘a key characteristic here is the idea of difference and, in a sense, the fragment of identities. In other words, students want to be recognised and treated as unique individuals rather than as groups’, (Livesey et al, 2005). Although a students background may effect their achievement, as evidence suggests, it must be remembered that everyone is an individual with their own abilities, no matter what race, class or gender they are, have the potential to achieve in education. A girl, black or white from a working class background may not have had any opportunities for a good career after education 50 years ago, due to inequalities in the system, but this is not the case today. Overall the educational achievements for all groups of people have improved. There will always be some people in all of the groups mentioned previously, that ‘fail’ in education, as a result of ‘self-gratification’ and ‘now culture’, they are more focused on ‘living for the moment’, and not thinking about how their actions during their education can effect their future life.

Research Get Write Example

Research Get Write Example Research Get Write – Coursework Example Research Design Goes Here Building Blocks of an appropriate Research Design 15/09 Building Blocks of a Research Design Criminal justice research is a highly scientific method. The first question to be answered in a research design is what the researcher is trying to accomplish. This is basically called as the purpose of the research. The research can be done to explore a particular thing, evaluate the affects or simply a describe a phenomenon. At the most basic level in every kind of research there exists at least one independent variable and one dependent variable. The dependent variable is generally called as the outcome variable. Quantitative research basically involves a pattern of involving the study of relationship between these variables. Once this has been done we can then go on to explore the various research methods that are available to researchers such as survey research , experimental and quasi-experimental research , cross-sectional research , longitudinal research , ti me series research and meta analysis. Survey research consists of asking questions from a sample of respondents. These questions may be open-ended or close-ended. Survey method is generally quite efficient and inexpensive. However this method does suffer from the problems like sampling, measurement and the overall design of the survey. Experimental and the quasi-experimental researches are considered to be the best form of research for criminal justice. Experiments usually have the following three features – two comparison groups, independent variable must have some variation before we go forward and assess the changes in the dependent variable and lastly there should be random assignment to the two or more comparison groups. Experiments may even have a pre-test or a post-test.Pre -test measures the dependent variable before the experiment and post-test measures it after the experimental intervention has been done. One example of this type of research is – Two police p recincts which should be similar to each other are selected to study the fear of crime in their neighborhood. Both of them would be pre-tested to obtain information about the fear among the citizens. After the duration of research is over, both of them would be again post-tested to observe the change in perceptions.Cross sectional research design involves study of one group at a particular point of time. It basically provides information about the particular phenomenon and tells researchers about the state of affairs.Time series design observes a single group. This research typically analyses a single variable affecting a particular group at different points of time. This type of research is extremely beneficial in studying the impact of a new program or a new method of policing introduced in area. An example of this will be to study the murder rate is USA over a period of 10 years.Longitudinal research is concerned with assessing the same group over a period of time and they asses the changes that take place within the group. Panel and cohort studies are two of the commonly used longitudinal research methods. An example of this type of research is the cohort study conducted by Marvin Wolfgang about the criminal records of all boys who were born in Philadelphia in 1945 up to the age of 18.BibliographyMaxfield, M. (2009). Basics of Research Methods in Criminal Justice and Criminoogy. Belmont CA: Wadsworth Cengage LEarning.